Developmental Perspective

In this context, development refers to the changes that people experience as they pass through their entire lifetime. Developmental Theories basically examine the life events of a person as they transition throughout their different life stages.

Developmental Criminology is a means of examining crime through the changes in offending and problem behaviors over time. A related field of study is called life course criminology. They are both concerned about human development, but differ in their approach and focus. While the former tends to focus on psychological factors in explaining the developmental processes, the latter gives more important to social structures.

Below is a video from the Griffith Criminology Institute introducing the theme, "Developmental and Life Course Criminology and Prevention Science." This introduction of their research theme is also an introduction into what developmental and life course criminology is all about.

There are two types of developmental perspectives: latent trait theory and life course theory.

Latent Trait Theories

These theories state that personality characteristics that might be present at birth or acquired at an early life stage could remain stable over time. That is, these characteristics you gain in early life could determine your outcomes in adulthood.

The trait to which this theory refers is the unique identity of an individual and is usually hidden and only emerges during certain unavoidable situation.

General Theory of Crime

This theory was created through a collaboration between Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, and is also called the Self-Control Theory.

As you can imagine from this second name, the theory states that an individual's proneness to commit a crime is related to that individual's level of self-control. They further theorized that low self-control is a product of low self-esteem. Those with low self-esteem are unable to control themselves and are easily enticed by things or acts that provide instant gratification.

Additionally, parents play a big role in an individual's development, and those who were properly guided by their parents have the least desire to commit a crime.

Differential Coercion Theory

Coercion is defined as an act or process of making someone do or choose something.

Developed by Prof. Mark Colvin in 2000, the theory demonstrates the connection between coercion and the probability of committing a crime. It is based on the principle that juveniles that have negative experiences at home and in society are more likely to commit crimes in the future.

There are three (3) types of coercion: interpersonal or direct coercion, impersonal or indirect coercion, and prosocial behavior.

Interpersonal or Direct Coercion

This means of coercion is through the use of force, intimidation, fear, and, sometimes, even physical violence. It may also include the threatened or actual removal of one's social supports, those which provide both material and emotional needs.

Impersonal or Indirect Coercion

This refers to pressures that are beyond one's control such as unemployment, poverty, and competition. This type of coercion creates a sense of desperation in an individual which could then lead them to criminal behavior.

Prosocial Behavior

This is a low-level of coercion that some people might innately feel, especially if they are the type who enjoys assisting other people. Unfortunately, this assistance could include aiding and abetting in criminal acts, which could then turn an individual into an accomplice or an accessory to crime.

Control Balance Theory

This is an original theory of deviant behavior that was developed by Charles R. Tittle. It is based on his book, Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance published in 1995.

The theory is grounded on the idea of control which is:

1. the extent of how others and their environments sets boundaries of action; and,
2. the degree to which and how individuals can escape from these controls and exerts with others.

The imbalance between the drives and self-restraint, also called control imbalance, results in deviant behavior. There are two types of control imbalance:

1. the number of controls that one is subject to is higher than the number of controls one can exercise, also called control deficits
2. the number of experienced controls exceed the number of controls one can exercise, also called control surpluses

Life Course Theories

These theories contend that individuals experience certain transitions, or significant events, in life that could change their perceptions. These can either lead someone to a good path or mislead them in their life path.

This was originated by Karl Mannheim in 1920. He demonstrated that an individual's childhood experiences had a predominant impact on shaping their personality and can be passed from one generation to the next. The primary focus of Mannheim's theory is the influences that a person might encounter throughout life.

These theories further assert that early life experiences are most influential rather than late life experiences.

Age-Graded Theory

Developed by Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub, this theory suggests that behavioral changes, including the physical transitions of an individual, may be identified through their recent experiences and some events during their socialization.

There are three major components of the theory:

1. The delinquency in childhood and adolescence is justified through the micro-level structural context through the intermediary between non-formal family and school policies.
2. Different life factors contribute to the progress of antisocial behavior from childhood to adolescence.
3. Outraging of instinctive drives during childhood, non-formal bonds with family, and employment characterizes the transition to criminality.

Delinquent Development Theory

This theory was based on a comprehensive study done by David Farrington at Cambridge University in the UK started in 1961.

The research found that a chronic criminal typically possess the following:

• male
• born into a low-income family
• born into a large family
• parents or siblings have criminal records or prior offending
• parents are likely separated or divorced

A typical offender provided his offspring and his own family the same life he had, especially those that came from a disadvantaged and informal family. This is the reason why offending is transmitted to the next generation.

It was further found that the parenting style is a factor in shaping an individual's personality. Giving harsh punishment as a disciplinary method at an early age is ineffective, for it will only invite impairment of emotion that is visible in an individual's behavior.

Of course, while there are risk factors present in most of the subjects of the study, some of them are able to break the cycle of criminal offending. That is, they still managed to either remain non-offenders or begin a criminal career but were able to desist after a while.

Interactional Theory

Developed by Terence Thornberry, the theory suggests that structural disadvantages affect the initial level of social bond, which, in turn, is reciprocally related to association with delinquent peers, delinquent values, and delinquent behavior.

Moffit's Theory

This theory on delinquency was developed by Terrie Moffit. It implies that socialization plays an important role in bringing up any life course outcome. The theory further states that a maturity gap between the parties involved dictates the cost and reward of antisocial behavior, and individuals imitating the antisocial behavior of others because of the success of those others.

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