Sociological Theories

Sociological Positivism

This is a movement in the study of criminology which was pioneered by Auguste Comte. Comte advocates the use of the scientific method to develop our understanding of humanity and society.

As mentioned in the video, positivist sociology is "the study of society based on systematic observations of social behavior." Essentially, this school of thought posits that crime and criminality should be explained through factors that are external to the offender. Under this school of thought, the phenomenon of criminality is explained through the lens of societal conditions and specific circumstances.

Sociological Theories

These theories are most numerous amongst the groups of theories that attempt to explain crime and criminality. Some of them are as follows:

Laws of Imitation

As mentioned in the video, this was a theory proposed by Gabriel Tarde. In the context of criminology, this translates to people being attracted to criminal activity by the example of other criminals.

Social Control Theory

Proposed by Travis Hirschi, the theory states that people's tendency towards criminality is controlled by their social attachments. When one has these attachments, there is less tendency towards crime. Those who are not attached commit more crimes. These attachments can be towards parents, teachers, and to the school.

According to Hirschi, people who do not commit crimes have been properly socialized. They can no longer commit crimes as they have a well-developed sense of morality that keeps them from hurting people.

Containment Theory

This is a theory by Walter Reckless that assumes that every individual possess internal and external structures that provide protection against delinquency.

Labeling Theory

This was proposed by Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin Lemert, and Howard Becker.

As the name implies, this theory states that people become who they are by the influence of what society marks them as. If a person is labeled as brilliant, then they become brilliant. If a person is labeled as criminal, then they become criminal.

Anomie Theory

This was a theory proposed by Emile Durkheim. The theory assumes that crime is a natural phenomenon in society. Anomie is what happens when there is a breakdown of social norms because of the loss of standards and values. This then provides a setting conducive to crimes and other deviant acts.

Strain Theories

Strain is essentially defined as frustrations. This can come from goals and dreams that a person is unable to attain.

Robert Merton proposed the Strain Theory and argued that the real problem is created not by sudden social change but by a social structure that holds out the same goals to all its members without giving them equal opportunity by creating social pressure. The failure of a person to achieve a higher status causes them to commit crimes as they see it as a shortcut towards goal attainment.

Similarly, Robert Agnew suggested the General Strain Theory. He argued that the individual's actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals and actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all result in strain, thereby creating criminality.

American Dream Theory

This was proposed by Stephen F. Messner and Richard Rosenfeld. The "American Dream" is a commitment to material success that is being advanced by popular media and society at large. This, however, is said to have corrupted American values as the focus of each individual has become the pursuit of financial success instead of a real pursuit of happiness. According to Messner and Rosenfeld, this distortion has resulted in the degradation of the individual, thereby creating criminal behavior.

Cultural Deviance

Culture is all that is transmitted socially rather than biologically, representing the norms, customs, and values against which behavior is judged by the majority.

Cultural deviance theories posit that society consists of various groups and subgroups, each with its own standards of right and wrong. Behavior that is considered appropriate in one group may be considered deviant in another. This set of theories attributes crime to a set of values that exist in disadvantaged neighborhoods.

Subcultures

A subculture is a division within the dominant culture that has its own norms, beliefs, and values. Subcultures may form among members of racial and ethnic minorities, among prisoners, among occupational groups, and among ghetto dwellers.

Albert Cohen is a proponent of the Subcultural Theory of delinquency which claims that members of the lower class cannot socialize effectively as middle-class in what is considered as appropriate middle class behavior.

The idea of reaction formation suggests that delinquency among lower class youths is a reaction against the social norms of the middle class. The lower classes thus gather together to share their common problems forming a subculture that rejects middle-class values.

These theories emerged from the Chicago School and developed to account for delinquency among lower class males, especially for one of its most important expressions - the teenage gang. The primary focus is on juvenile delinquency because theorists believe that, if this pattern of offending can be understood and controlled, it will break the transition from teenage offender into habitual criminal.

The Chicago School, sometimes called the Ecological School, was the first major body of work that specialized in urban sociology. It emerged during the 1920's and the 1930's.

Major Cultural Deviance Theories

• Social Disorganization Theory Proposed by Henry Mckay and Clifford R. Shaw, this theory focuses on the development of high-crime areas in which there is a disintegration of conventional values caused by rapid industrialization, increased immigration, and urbanization. Social disorganization is basically the breakdown of effective social bonds, including family and neighborhood associations.
• Differential Association Theory It maintains that people learn to commit crime as a result of contact with antisocial values, attitudes, and criminal behavioral patterns. This was proposed by Edwin Sutherland. It additionally states that crime is learned through social interactions.
• Culture Conflict Theory It states that different groups learn different norms and that these norms may clash with conventional middle-class rules. It was suggested by Thornsten Sellin and focuses on the source of these criminal norms and attitudes.

Differential Opportunity Theory

This theory combines the strain theory and social learning theory. It was proposed by Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd B. Ohlin. It attempts to explain why people initially engaged in crime and why they continue participating in it.

Conflict Theory

It holds that society is based on conflict between competing interest groups, e.g. rich vs poor, management vs labor, whites vs minorities, men vs women, adults vs children. It was proposed by George Vold.

Class Struggle

Freidrich Engels submitted the idea that crime is a function of competition or struggles between the different social classess. The capitalist system's emphasis on competition and wealth produces an economic and social environment in which crime is inevitable.

Rational Choice Theory

This was based on the utilitarian, classical school philosophies of Beccaria which were popularized by Bentham. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender.

Routine Activity Theory

This theory states that crime happens because the following elements are present:

• a motivated offender
• a suitable target
• and a lack of a capable guardian

This was proposed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson.

← Biological Theories

Psychological Theories →